Dissection, media portrayals, and reaction: Black bodies and medical education in nineteenth-century newspapers.

Throughout the nineteenth century, medical schools in both the Northern and Southern regions of the United States required a regular supply of bodies for medical study and experimentation. Physicians and medical students targeted the bodies of African Americans, both freedmen and the enslaved, to meet this demand. Simultaneously, the nation's booming newspaper market became a stage on which debates about the cruelty of slavery and the social consequences of pursuing medical knowledge played out in articles about the dissection of Black bodies. Such stories increased fears about dissection and mistrust towards the medical profession among African American communities, which manifested in riots against physicians, vandalism against medical schools, and corrective responses from African American newspaper editors and journalists. Through an extensive examination of nineteenth-century U.S. newspapers, this article identifies themes evident in the coverage of dissection during this period. Southern newspapers crafted stories of dissection that served the dual purpose of entertaining White readers and humiliating African Americans. This public humiliation fostered what became a popular genre of derogatory and vile humor that reinforced negative and inaccurate racialized stereotypes as well as racist science. Ultimately, such newspaper coverage provoked reactions within Black communities and among antislavery advocates that showcase how people often excluded from practicing medicine themselves viewed issues like medical education. Newspaper rhetoric around these themes amplified tensions between religious and scientific perspectives, reflected differences and similarities between the northern and southern areas of the United States, and fortified racist views in both cultural and scientific contexts.

The Sun Also Rises: Tracing the evolution of humanistic values in anatomy pedagogy and research, including cadaveric acquisition practices.

Anatomy has always been at the intersection of the socio-cultural and political landscape, where new ideas constantly replace older wisdom. From ancient Egyptians through the Greeks, and then the Romans, finally culminating into the European Renaissance-all the significant eras of human civilisation have left their insignia and distinct marks on the evolution of anatomical practices. Despite its utility as a tool for anatomy pedagogy and research that has proven its worth over millennia, cadaveric dissection has particularly been subject to political and social vicissitudes. A major debate about anatomical dissection lay with the ethical considerations, or its lack thereof, while acquiring corpses for demonstration in the dissection halls. From antiquity, anatomical dissection-often synonymous with medical studies-had typically been carried out on the dead bodies of executed criminals with certain laws, such as the Murder Act of 1752, facilitating such uses. Gradually, the uses of unclaimed bodies, resourced primarily from the impoverished sections of society, were also introduced. However, these body acquisition protocols often missed the crucial element of humanism and ethical considerations, while knowledge augmentation was taken as sufficient reasoning. Unfortunately, a gross disregard towards humanistic values promulgated heinous and illegal practices in acquiring corpses, including grave robbery and even murders like in the case of Burke and Hare murders of 1828. Follow-up legislation, such as the Anatomy Act of 1832, and comparable laws in other European nations were passed to curb the vile. What distils from such a historical discourse on humane values in anatomy dissection, or medical science in general, is that the growth and integration of humanism in anatomy have never been linear, but there were intermittent and, yet, significant disruptions in its timeline. For example, there were serious human rights violations in anatomical practices during the Third Reich in Germany that perpetrated the holocaust. The medical community has kept evolving and introducing new moral values and principles while using such egregious events as lessons, ultimately resulting in the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964. This article revisits the heterogeneous journey of integrating humanistic values in anatomy practice. Such humanistic traits that, like medical science, have also developed over centuries through the inputs of physicians, researchers, and philosophers-from Greece to modernity with an important stopgap at the Renaissance-are a fascinating lore that deserves to be re-envisioned through the lens of contemporary values and ethos. In parallel to human medicine, humanistic values continue to influence veterinary medicine, a welcome development, as our society condemns animal cruelty in any form. There are lessons to be learned from this historical journey of how humanism shaped many of the concepts that anatomists use now. Finally, and most importantly, it might prevent the medical community from repeating the same mistakes by cautioning against the traps that are there, and in a convoluted world where morality as such is eroding from our social fabric, will always be there. Such historical account acts as a righteous, ethical, and contextual compass to guide the existing and upcoming anatomists in discerning between light and dark, right and wrong, and roads-to be or not to be-taken.

The Emergence and Effects of the First Anatomy Theatres in Western Europe / El Surgimiento y los Efectos de las Primeras Salas de Anatomía en Europa Occidental

SUMMARY: The spread of the idea that the human body should be learned from cadavers, especially under the leadership of Vesalius, and the strong support of this idea among surgeons and medical students of that period, led to the emergence of anatomy theatres, particularly in the rich centres of Western Europe. Anatomy theatres have become prestigious places that make contributions to financial income for the cities they are located in. They have contributed to the importance of universities with the students they attract. Anatomy has become a more visual and international science because of the spread of anatomical drawings in scientific medical books, the newly invented printing press making it easier to print more books and the increasing interest of the people of the period. Learning medicine has become easier with the spread of visual anatomy books and cadaver studies. Cadaver studies and anatomy theatres, which started to become widespread under the leadership of brave science warriors such as Vesalius, who lived in the Renaissance period, became the subject of the paintings of painters of the period such as Rembrandt under the name anatomy activities. It is beneficial and necessary for society to keep in memory what this period brought to the world of anatomy and the present with its historical processes.

La difusión de la idea de que el cuerpo humano se debe aprender a partir de cadáveres, especialmente bajo el liderazgo de Vesalius, y el fuerte apoyo de esta idea entre los cirujanos y estudiantes de medicina de ese período, condujo al surgimiento de las salas de anatomía, particularmente en los ricos centros de Europa Occidental. Las salas de anatomía se han convertido en lugares de prestigio que contribuyen a los ingresos económicos de las ciudades en las que están ubicados y han contribuido a la importancia de las universidades con los estudiantes que atraen. La anatomía se ha convertido en una ciencia más visual e internacional debido a la difusión de los dibujos anatómicos en los libros médicos científicos, la imprenta recién inventada que facilita la impresión de libros y el creciente interés de la gente de la época. Aprender medicina se ha vuelto más fácil con la difusión de libros de anatomía visual y estudios de cadáveres. Los estudios de cadáveres y las salas de anatomía, que comenzaron a generalizarse bajo el liderazgo de valientes guerreros de la ciencia como Vesalius, que vivió en el Renacimiento, se convirtieron en el tema de las pinturas de artistas de la época como Rembrandt bajo el nombre de actividades de anatomía. Es beneficioso y necesario que la sociedad guarde en la memoria lo que este período trajo al mundo de la anatomía y el presente con sus procesos históricos.

Anatomy From Nazi Germany to Today.

This viewpoint reviews the anatomical body procurement used in Nazi Germany, notes the continued use of those images, and calls for disclosure of the biographical history of the people whose bodies and tissues are now studied.

The place of ethics in practice of anatomical sciences: have we left our dark past behind and looking towards a bright future?

INTRODUCTION: Anatomical sciences involve handling of human tissues and, therefore, application of principles of bioethics is central to anatomical practice. For a considerable period of time, anatomy was practiced without ethical norms as concept of ethics developed during second half of twentieth century. Hence, possible glimpse into contrast in ethical standards between anatomy in the past and present was deemed as an intriguing research theme. METHODS: A literature search was undertaken from indexed databases (Medline and Pubmed, Scopus, Embase, CINAHL Plus, Web of Science and Google Scholar). Relevant data were extracted from 37 articles that were selected from an initial pool of 752 articles based on search criteria set for the study. RESULTS: Prevalent anatomical practices in the past such as dissection of executed criminals, acts of vivisection, illegal procurement of human remains, use of human tissues obtained as part of war crimes and dissection of human fetuses as well as their archival were analyzed through prism of established ethical norms in present day. The observations from past were presented vis-à-vis ethical practices undertaken in present times such as use of donated bodies and/or body parts procured through legal means for dissection, adherence to ethical norms during dissection, archival of human tissues mandating stringent regulation and dignified disposal of human remains. Existing loop holes were identified and future prospects regarding ethical standards in anatomy were highlighted based on rational judgment of existing trends. CONCLUSION: The article concludes with defense on future prospects of ethics in anatomy based on documented arguments.

The evolving ethics of anatomy: Dissecting an unethical past in order to prepare for a future of ethical anatomical practice.

Anatomical practice has arguably one of the most ethically challenging histories in the medical sciences. Among the oldest scientific disciplines in medicine, dissection of the human body for scientific purposes occurred as early as the third century Before the Common Era. Throughout the history of anatomical practice, human dissection has occurred in ways that cross the line from progressing medical science to violating the sanctity of the human body. The dissection of the human body creates ethical dilemmas which stem from the need for anatomical science to gain medical knowledge in juxtaposition with prevailing religious and moral views surrounding anatomy as a threat to the sanctity of the human body. This article examines the unethical history of human dissection throughout the ages and explores the rationale behind the unethical practices. In addition, this article explores imperative modern day ethical standards in anatomy including, the ethical handling of human bodies, respecting human life, and ensuring informed consent for dissection of bodies that are donated. Finally, this article explores the question of which ethical prism we should use when dealing with anatomy collections or works of the past. Learning both the history of unethical practices in anatomy and the rationale behind them is imperative so that the discipline can prepare for an ethical, diverse, and inclusive future. This article provides a foundation for understanding the evolution of ethics in anatomical practice and is a valuable resource for students and anatomists alike.

Bodies and bureaucracy: The demise of the body snatchers in 19th century Britain.

As European anatomical teaching developed in the middle ages, anatomists found themselves balanced between the educational and judicial systems. Dissection was associated with the final stages of legal prosecutions and the supply of bodies was severely limited. Driven by increasing student demand for dissection, anatomists found themselves pushed to explore alternative routes for body supply. This led to association with the developing profession of grave robber, body snatchers, and even murderers. Keen to protect themselves from increasing vulnerability to legal prosecution, the eminent anatomists of the United Kingdom pushed for government legislation to provide a supply of cadaveric material for education. This article looks at the development of the Anatomy legislation in the United Kingdom in 1832. By highlighting three events in the early 1800s, it demonstrates that the development of the legislation was for addressing the concerns of the anatomists rather than any ethical concerns about the cadaveric supply. The poorest in society were used to develop the medical understanding of the more wealthy before, during, and after the introduction of the legislation. The first event made the anatomists criminal liable for body supply while the latter two events linked anatomists with murderers. The increasing demand for legislation to provide a supply of cadaveric material released the anatomists from the financial burden of dealing with grave robbers while still allowing dissection tables to be supplied with the poorest in society.

Bygone theatres of events: A history of human anatomy and dissection.

Over the last four millennia, the discipline of anatomy and its relationships with medicine and society have evolved dramatically. Human dissection, the perennial tool for anatomical discovery and education, has both guided this evolution and matured alongside it. Soon after the first cadaveric dissections recorded in ancient Greece, China, India, and Persia, clear endorsements of its practice fell largely silent in the anatomical record for 1,500 years before reappearing in Europe at the dawn of the Renaissance. Between the 13th and 18th centuries CE, the performance of anatomical dissection became a popular form of education and public entertainment, and the demand for human cadavers steadily increased among European anatomical schools while supply remained limited by legal statute. This gave rise to an informal group of amateur and professional body snatchers called the Resurrectionists and, later, inspired the Anatomy Act of 1832 CE. In the 20th and 21st centuries CE, voluntary body bequeathal programs have enabled the practice of human dissection to continue in academic centers as a cornerstone of anatomical education, now with a newfound focus on the development of affective skills. This article provides an abridged account of anatomy's development, highlighting key moments in its growth, the valuable contributions of many different societies to the discipline, and the important roles of several luminary anatomists of antiquity. Within the broader context of this history, it offers an overview of anatomical dissection's evocative past, spanning from its inception to its present-day practice.

The evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy: From antiquity to modern times.

Present day scenario regarding epistemological methods in anatomy is in sharp contrast to the situation during ancient period. This study aimed to explore the evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy across centuries. In ancient times Egyptian embalmers acquired anatomical knowledge from handling human bodies and likewise anatomical studies in India involved human dissection. Ancient Greeks used theological principles-based methods, animal dissection and human dissection in practice of anatomy. Human dissection was also practiced in ancient China for gaining anatomical knowledge. Prohibition of human dissection led to use of animal dissection in ancient Rome and the trend continued in Europe through Middle Ages. Epistemological methods used by Muslim scholars during Middle Ages are not clearly chronicled. Human dissection returned as primary epistemological method in Renaissance Europe and empirical methods were reinstated after ancient period in human dissection during 16th century. The situation further improved with introduction of pragmatic experiment based approach during 17th century and autopsy-based methods during 18th century. Advances in anatomical knowledge continued with advent of microscope-based methods and emergence of anatomical sections in practice of human dissection in 19th century. Introduction of human observational studies, medical imaging, and molecular methods presented more options in terms of epistemological methods for investigating the human body during 20th century. Onset of 21st century has witnessed dominance of technology-based methods in anatomy. Limited emphasis on ethics in epistemological methodologies since antiquity is a dark aspect of otherwise an eventful evolutionary journey but recent developments are in positive direction.

Sushruta on human dissection as pre-requisite to surgery / Sushruta sobre la disección humana como requisito previo a la cirugía

SUMMARY: In the western surgical tradition there has been little acknowledgement of the ancient Vedic surgeon Sushruta who initiated many aspects of surgical practice. In his compendium the Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta systematised medicine in various areas. His meticulous knowledge in many branches of medicine is evident. A brilliant surgeon, he developed plastic surgical techniques, types of bandaging, hygiene practices and over one hundred surgical instruments. In this article, I focus on Sushruta's ideas on human dissection as a pre-requisite for surgery, his method of preparation of human cadavers and his anatomical pedagogy. Sushruta pioneered the instruction of cadaveric based anatomical learning which is still being used in medical teaching.

RESUMEN: En la tradición quirúrgica occidental existe escaso reconocimiento del antiguo cirujano védico Sushruta, quien inició muchos aspectos de la práctica quirúrgica. En su compen-dio, el Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta sistematizó la medicina en varias áreas. Es evidente su meticuloso conocimiento en muchas ramas de la medicina. Cirujano brillante, desarrolló técnicas de cirugía plástica, tipos de vendajes, prácticas de higiene y más de cien instrumentos quirúrgicos. El enfoque de este artículo se centra en las ideas de Sushruta sobre la disección humana como requisito previo para la cirugía, su método de preparación de cadáveres humanos y su pedagogía anatómica. Sushruta fue pionero en la instrucción del aprendizaje anatómico basado en cadáveres que todavía se utiliza en la enseñanza médica.

William Hunter's aristocratic post mortems.

William Hunter's writings, lectures and his collection of circa 1,400 pathological specimens at the University of Glasgow show that, within the scientific limitations of the 18th Century, he had a sound grasp of the significance of morbid anatomical appearances. Unlike John Hunter's collection at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, few of the Hunterian specimens at Glasgow have an accompanying case history. Within the Special Collections at the Glasgow University Library are a small number of post mortem reports, including four involving William Hunter's aristocratic patients. This article explores these patient cases, and also the only instance recorded by John Hunter of William working with him on a post mortem of an aristocrat, that of the Marquis of Rockingham, Prime Minister, who died in 1782. The study aims to better understand William Hunter's medical practice and his professional connections with other practitioners. The post mortem examinations were carried out by a surgeon/anatomist and observed by the patient's physician(s). For aristocratic post mortems, those attending were senior and well-established practitioners. The notes made were not particularly detailed. The reports show clearly that William Hunter's practice, in the 1760s at least, was not confined to midwifery.

Primeras disecciones anatómicas con fines docentes en Chile / First anatomical dissections for teaching purposes in Chile

RESUMEN: En Chile, los primeros antecedentes de la enseñanza de la anatomía aparecen en el siglo XVI, para proveer conocimientos a los profesionales sanitarios que ejercían en el territorio. En 1704, el Papa Sixto IV permite la práctica de la disección, encabezada por el alcalde de la ciudad y en donde se invitaba a médicos y cirujanos. Posteriormente, la enseñanza exclusivamente teórica de la medicina en la Universidad Real de San Felipe estimuló a los profesores a enseñarla clínica y la anatomía en forma práctica para complementar las clases expositivas. La Independencia de Chile, determinó que las carreras universitarias sufrieran cambios curriculares importantes, aunque en medicina y anatomía, su desarrollo fue lento y tortuoso. El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir las prácticas de la disección anatómica en la formación de médicos en Chile durante el periodo comprendido entre los años 1704y 1889. Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en libros de historia de Chile, de historia de la medicina chilena y artículos científicos relacionados al tema, esto nos permitió describir los inicios, desarrollo y características de la práctica de la disección utilizada en la formación de médicos en el periodo en cuestión. El análisis de los resultados nos permitió identificar 5 etapas distintas entre sí, fuertemente influidas por su contexto histórico y diferenciadas por el enfoque que les infundieron los profesores de cada una de estas etapas, que definieron una bibliografía, una orientación y una práctica de la disección en función de las formaciones académicas de cada uno de ellos. Este trabajo, permitió ordenar y exponer información valiosa para la historia de la medicina en Chile, y muy importante, comprender las prácticas educativas que se llevaron a cabo en la formación de estos profesionales que tuvieron un rol preponderante en el proceso de establecimiento de la naciente nación.

SUMMARY: In Chile, the first teachings of anatomy were carried out in the XVI century, to develop the knowledge of health profesionals practicing in the country. In 1704, Pope Sixtus IV allowed the practice of dissection, led by city's mayor of the city and where doctors and surgeons were invited. Subsequently, the exclusively theoretical teaching of medicine at the Real Universidad de San Felipe encouraged teachers to teach anatomy in clinical and practical ways to complement the lectures. Independence of Chile, found that university careers suffer major curricular changes, although in medicine and anatomy, development was slow and tortuous. The aim of this study was to describe the practice of anatomical dissection in training doctors in Chile during the period between 1700 and 1889. A literature review was conducted in scientific articles related to the subject and books on the history of Chile and the history of Chilean medicine. This allowed us to describe the beginnings, development and characteristics of the dissection practice used in the training of physicians in the period in question. The analysis of the results allowed us to identify 5 different stages, strongly influenced by their historical context and differentiated by the approach used by the teachers of each of these stages, who defined a bibliography, an orientation and a dissection practice. In turn, the focus of each teacher was based on the academic training of each of them. This work allowed ordering and exposing valuable information for the history of medicine in Chile, as well as understanding the educational practices that were carried out in the training of these professionals who had a critical role in the process of this developing nation.

[On the dawn of human dissections in early modern Japan].

The commencement of human dissections in Japan during the Edo period is often depicted as the individual achievement of Yamawaki Toyo. In 1754, this renowned scholar of the "School of Ancient Prescriptions, " feeling unable to resolve discrepancies in the Chinese classical literature, succeeded in obtaining permission for a dissection and was allocated a corpse at the execution place in Kyoto. However, a closer look at this issue reveals that the paradigm change to gaining knowledge through anatomical studies did not occur suddenly after centuries of stagnation. Beginning with the arrival of western medicine in the mid-17th century, this paper demonstrates how foreign and indigenous medical, social, political and religious stimuli gradually led to a new attitude toward human dissections and a rising awareness of the merits of anatomical observations. Decades before Yamawaki counted the number of human viscera, an ophthalmologist had discovered the faculty of the eye as a means for new insights and bone-setters had begun to revise textual knowledge by observing and manipulating the skeletons of rotting corpses. Yamawaki's accomplishment does not lie in the nature of his dissection or the (quickly outdated) results, but in the sheer fact that he carried out the dissection with the permission of the shogunal authorities and managed to publish his findings. Furthermore, among those physicians who quickly followed his example, we find Kawaguchi Shinnin, whose intellectual and mental breakthrough has not been recognized sufficiently yet. In Kawaguchi's case, there was no searching through the classical literature, no detached reflection and no awe resulting from the knife and the body fluids. The dissection that he conducted in 1770 was an unemotional "clinical" search for new insights by measuring sizes, determining positions, colors and consistencies, and by manipulating and investigating. The paper finishes with a comparison of the basic traits of anatomical illustrations in Japan and Europe.

How Italy has moved from anatomical studies in the sixteenth century to body donation in the twenty-first century.

INTRODUCTION: The anatomical dissection plays a fundamental role in the students' formation as well as in the specialists' updating. In contrast to what happened in the sixteenth century, when medical students and professors from all over the Europe were used to come in Italy, today Italian surgeons have to go abroad to attend training courses, with inevitable economic costs and personal inconveniences. The reason for this circumstance lies in the existence of obsolete and even ethically unacceptable legal rules. The recent unanimous approval by the Italian Senate of the bill on postmortem body donation opens important perspectives. MATERALS AND METHODS: The authors, after having reviewed the main historical stages in anatomical dissection, examine the above mentioned recent bill n. 733 (XVIII Legislature) concerning the disposition of one's body and post-mortem tissues for the purposes of study, training and scientific research, taking into consideration also the international context. DISCUSSION: The bill aims to fill the serious legislative gap, not only offering the possibility of satisfying the noble needs of human solidarity, but also giving to future doctors a contact with death capable of promoting human and ethical values such as the respect for life. CONCLUSIONS: The Italian legal system presents - right now - serious operational gaps which make body donation practically unapplied. While waiting for the bill to finally see light, it is necessary to engage in educational activities that can promote the culture of this "gift" and, at the same time, that of respect for the body of the deceased person. KEY WORDS: Anatomical dissection, Body donation, Study and research.

Anatomy and academies of art I: founding academies of art.

The structure of the human body and its parts is of obvious relevance in medicine, but it has also played a role in art. Accurate observation of surface or external anatomy is essential in both disciplines, and its understanding has been enhanced by knowledge of what is found beneath the skin, the internal anatomy, usually based on dissection. The role of anatomy in art in general, and in academies of art in particular, is the theme of this paper. The revival of dissection in 14th-century Italy was, if not causative, at least coincidental with the Renaissance. In 1563, Vasari founded the Accademia del Disegno in Florence, with una Anatomia included in its regulations. As a liberal art taught by university graduates, anatomy helped raise the status of painters and sculptors from artisans to artists and from guild to academy. Anatomy teaching was required in subsequent academies in Rome (1593) and Paris (1648), where the pattern of drawing from drawings, from casts, and from life was established and a Professor of Anatomy appointed in 1777. Anatomy was central to two of the Academy's most important genres, history painting and portraiture. The Academy system, with its emphasis on anatomy, spread to other European cities and to the Caribbean and the Americas from the 17th to the 19th centuries. This paper is concerned with the role of anatomy in the founding of art academies in general, while its companion paper, 'A Tale of Two Cities', considers the cases of the academies in London and Dublin in particular.

The Birth, Death, and Renaissance (?) of Dissection: A Critique of Anatomy Teaching With-or Without-the Human Body.

A riveting debate regarding the fate of dissection, the classical method of anatomy, is sweeping through medical academia, as imaging tools gain a greater foothold in anatomy teaching programs. This Perspective does not aim to grapple with the question of "how should anatomy be taught" but rather to explain why the transformation of anatomical education is taking place by situating these developments in the broader philosophical context of modern medicine, offered by Michel Foucault's The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception. Emphasizing the body's crucial role in the epistemological change in medical practice in the early 19th century, Foucault coined the term "medical gaze" to denote the doctor's observation of the patient's body in search of signs of disease. Within this new systematic perception of disease, which brought about the anatomo-clinical method, the clinical gaze thus embraced the study of the body via dissection. The author contends that the introduction of medical imaging into the diagnostic process has resulted in a shift in the focus of the clinical gaze from the body to its medical image and that this process is mirrored in anatomy by its discarding of the cadaver. Given the fundamental differences between the phenomenology of the body and its medical image, the author suggests that when using medical images in medical schools and teaching hospitals, one teaches, at the very least, a new kind of anatomy. Foucault's analysis of the painting The Treachery of Images by Réne Magritte lends some support to the ideas presented here.